TRANSMISSION LINES DESIGN and ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING HUB

Fuses for high voltage as defined in IEEE Std C37.40-1993 refers to fuses with rating above 1000 V. It covers covers fuses used in both medium- and high-voltage systems.  Fuses may also be classified as power fuses and distribution fuses, depending on the intended location of the fuses in the power system. In addition, fuses may be classified for — Outdoor application only, or — Application indoors or in enclosures Fuses using new technologies have been available since the early 1980s, but have not yet been addressed by standards. POWER FUSES According to ANSI C37.42-1996, a power fuse is identified by the following characteristics: — Dielectric withstand [i.e., basic impulse insulation level (BIL)] strengths at power levels — Application primarily in stations and substations — Mechanical construction basically adapted to station and substation mountings Power fuses have other characteristics that differentiate them from distribution fuse...

From safety considerations, power conductors along the route of the transmission line should maintain requisite clearances to ground in open country, national highways, rivers, railways, tracks, telecommunication lines, other existing power lines. The ground clearance for different voltages, which generally applicable are: 5.66 kV 6.5 m at  +650 C conductor temperature 6.132 kV 7.0 m at  +650 C conductor temperature 7.220 kV 7.5 m at  +800 C conductor temperature The minimum clearances of conductor over rivers, which are not navigable, shall be kept 3.05 m over maximum flood level. The minimum clearances between the conductors of a power line and telecommunication cable shall be: 132 kV 2.44 m 220 kV 2.74 m 400 kV         4.88 m The minimum spacing between power lines shall be: 132 kV 2.75 m 220 kV 4.55 m 400 kV 6.00 m The spacing of conductors is determined by considerations, which are partly electrical an...

Conductor stringing systems currently employed in the power industry are almost as numerous as the organizations that string conductors. Below is an outline of the basic methods currently in use, but they are invariably modified to accommodate equipment readily available and the ideas and philosophies of the responsible supervisors.  In addition to a description of the various methods being used are comments relative to application and a listing of equipment applicable to each method.  Slack or layout method Using this method, the conductor is dragged along the ground by means of a pulling vehicle, or the reel is carried along the line on a vehicle and the conductor is deposited on the ground. The conductor reels are positioned on reel stands or jack either placed on the ground or mounted on a transporting vehicle.  These stands are designed to support the reel on an arbor, thus permitting it to turn as the conductor is pulled out. Usually, a braking devic...

FIBER OPTICS TECHNICIAN'S MANUAL, 4E is the ideal practical guide for designers, installers, and troubleshooters of fiber optic cable plants and networks. It reflects recent changes in fiber optic technology, marketing, and applications, including wider usage of Fiber To The Home (FTTH) applications and Local Area Networks (LANs). This book begins with a brief history of the development of fiber optics and progresses from the basics of this technology and its components, to installation and testing. FIBER OPTICS TECHNICIAN'S MANUAL, 4E will provide readers with a comprehensive overview of all aspects of fiber optics as used in communications systems, including telephone, CATV, and computers. About the Author Jim Hayes is a founder and President of The Fiber Optic Association, the professional society for fiber optics. He is also a partner in VDV Works, a company that provides tech support to the voice-data-video industry in the form of marketing, training and technical c...

Fiber optics is the hottest topic in communications and this book from the world's leading experts clearly lays out all the details of optical communications engineering * Essential technical guide and solutions kit for the super-fast, super-broad fiber systems and devices powering the fastest-growing communications infrastructure * Methods for generating above peak performance * Clear explanations and answers to tough challenges for WDM, DWDM, amplifiers, solitons, and other key technologies OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING -- FROM THE LEADING EXPERTS IN THE FIELD With their proven ability to provide both enormous speed and capacity, fiber optic networks have become the hands-down technology favorite for capacity-intensive broadband access applications. Business Week estimates the current fiber-optic networking market at an incredible $16.1 billion. Understanding fiber optical communications engineering has become must know information for engineers, engineering manage...

Free EBook Download Link Fiber Optics Sensors Fiber Optics Sensors Tutorials and Basics The need for both intrinsic and extrinsic fiber optic sensor technologies continues to grow. To meet the demands of this fast expanding applications-driven market, Fiber Optic Sensors, Second Edition presents both the latest advances in fiber optic sensor technology, such as the application of photonic crystal fibers to fiber optic gyroscopes, and recent application opportunities, including the use of fiber optic sensors as a minimally invasive medical treatment. The new edition of this seminal work highlights the development of fiber optic sensors, while providing an overview of current methods for the construction of high-speed and high-capacity fiber optic systems. Two new chapters cover topics such as femtosecond laser illumination inscription and the growing application sector of fiber optic chemical and biological sensors. Adding significant new material, the book continues to provide a progre...

This book provides you with the knowledge to analyse, specify and debug SCADA systems in the instrumentation and control environment. A SCADA system gathers information, such as where a leak on a pipeline has occurred, transfers the information back to a central site, alerting the home station that the leak has occurred, carrying out necessary analysis and control, such as determining if the leak is critical, and displaying the information in a logical and organized fashion. SCADA systems can be relatively simple, such as one that monitors environmental conditions of a small office building, or incredibly complex, such as a system that monitors all the activity in a nuclear power plant or the activity of a municipal water system. An engineer's introduction to Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems and their application in monitoring and controlling equipment and industrial plant Essential reading for data acquisition and control professionals in plant eng...

Bestselling author Ron Krutz once again demonstrates his ability to make difficult security topics approachable with this first in-depth look at SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) systems, Krutz discusses the harsh reality that natural gas pipelines, nuclear plants, water systems, oil refineries, and other industrial facilities are vulnerable to a terrorist or disgruntled employee causing lethal accidents and millions of dollars of damage-and what can be done to prevent this from happening Examines SCADA system threats and vulnerabilities, the emergence of protocol standards, and how security controls can be applied to ensure the safety and security of our national infrastructure assets How to secure systems that weren't built for security Worldwide, critical economic and governmental infrastructures have evolved into complex networks that facilitate communication, cost reduction, and efficiency. But the very features that create such benefits make these super...

SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems are at the heart of the modern industrial enterprise ranging from mining plants, water and electrical utility installations to oil and gas plants. In a market that is crowded with high-level monographs and reference guides, more practical information for professional engineers is required. This book covers the essentials of SCADA communication systems focussing on DNP3, the IEC 60870.5 standard and other new developments in this area. It commences with a brief review of the fundamentals of SCADA systems' hardware, software and the communications systems (such as RS-232, RS-485, Ethernet and TCP/IP) that connect the SCADA Modules together. A solid review is then done on the DNP3 and IEC 60870.5 protocols where its features, message structure, practical benefits and applications are discussed. This book provides you with the knowledge to design your next SCADA system more effectively with a focus on using the latest commun...

This is a free ebook about basics of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). A programmable logic controller, also called a PLC or programmable controller, is a computer-type device used to control equipment in an industrial facility. The kinds of equipment that PLCs can control are as varied as industrial facilities themselves. Conveyor systems, food processing machinery, auto assembly lines…you name it and there’s probably a PLC out there controlling it. In a traditional industrial control system, all control devices are wired directly to each other according to how the system is supposed to operate. In a PLC system, however, the PLC replaces the wiring between the devices. Thus, instead of being wired directly to each other, all equipment is wired to the PLC. Then, the control program inside the PLC provides the “wiring” connection between the devices. The control program is the computer program stored in the PLC’s memory...

Transposition in transmission line is a technique use to restore some sore of “electrical voltage drop” and current balance of the transmission line system. It is only applicable though in three phase system. It us done by literally, and physically exchanging the conductor position along the line. When the conductors of a three phase line are not spaced equilaterally, which is case often, the flux linkage and inductance of each phase are not the same. This difference in each phase results in an unbalanced circuit. Balance of these phases can be restored by exchanging the positions of the conductors at regular intervals along the line so that each conductors occupies the original position of every other conductor over an equal distance. A complete transposition cycle is shown below: Transposition results in each conductor having the same average inductance over the whole cycle. Modern power lines are usually not transposed at regular intervals, although inte...

Once the route and length of a transmission or distribution line has been decided upon and the correct conductor size and type selected to carry the system load safely and economically, there are still several mechanical considerations which will have an effect on installation practices and may influence the final choice of conductor. The line designer must consider such factors as tower and pole locations and heights, span lengths, conductor tension and sags, ground clearances, etc. Technically, this means that he must have detailed knowledge of conductor sag-tension characteristics as a function of span length, temperature, and weight loading. Much of this information is applied by wire and cable manufacturers in the form of tables and graphs that are to be used by the line designer. Supplementing these, the line designer prepares other graphs, tables, templates, etc., that are related to a specific installation. Thus, there are two distinct types of study:  (1) That w...

In the deregulated market of electric transmission power systems today and as the energy demand continues to increase, electric utilities are faced with the challenge of moving more power via existing lines while at the same time obtaining permission for the erection of new lines and upgrading of existing lines becomes increasingly more difficult.  As a result, power utilities and system operators are currently looking for opportunities to increase the capacity of the existing OHTLs without increasing the risk of equipment or system failure due to higher loading and an accelerated aging of the transmission infrastructure. One approach to manage the reliable operation of these systems is to utilize modern monitoring techniques as a method to prevent unexpected system outages.  On OHTLs the sag of the individual line is an operational and security concern, which directly relates to the conductor operating...

This news is written by  By João Carvalho / Business News Americas Source may be found here . Brazil needs to invest 39bn reais (US$23.5bn) between now and 2019 in new transmission lines as part of the initiative to keep power supply stable in face of the country's economic growth, according to a study from the government-linked thinktank Ipea. Brazil will have to implement 36,000km of new transmission lines until 2019 to link new energy projects to the national power grid and to connect different regions to the main power distribution networks. Brazilian utility sector regulator Aneel said Brazil's basic transmission network - equal or greater than 230kV - increased by 2,524km to 95,800km last year, BNamericas previously reported. The expansion followed completion of 24 projects, the largest of which were the 400km São João Piauí-Milagres line connecting states Piauí and Ceará, and the 367km Colinas-Ribeirão Gonçalves line in Piauí. According to Ipea, the est...

Hot-air furnaces are self-contained and self-enclosed units. They are usually centrally located within a building or house. Their purpose is to make sure the temperature of the interior of the structure is maintained at a comfortable level throughout. The design of the furnace is determined by the type of fuel used to fire it. Cool air enters the furnace and is heated as it comes in contact with the hot-metal heating surfaces. As the air becomes warmer, it also becomes lighter, which causes it to rise. The warmer, lighter air continues to rise until it is either discharged directly into a room, as in the pipeless gravity system, or is carried through a duct system to warm-air outlets located at some distance from the furnace. After the hot air loses its heat, it becomes cooler and heavier. Its increased weight causes it to fall back to the furnace, where it is reheated and repeats the cycle. This is a very simplified desc...

Safety is an important issue in any industry. This is most significant in the field of electricity and electrical engineering. The linemen, best epitomize the risk involved in the filed of transmission and distribution line engineering. They are at the forefront and front line of construction, repair, and rehabilitation  of lines. They are at risk, both from electrical shock, mechanical hazards, and the height of the pole pose more risk for them. That is why, it is very important to focus safety on their daily tasks. This entry is about some of the personal Protective Equipment used by our Linemen, on their tasks. PPE or Personal Protective Equipment is defined in the Regulations as ‘all equipment (including clothing affording protection against the weather) which is intended to be worn or held by a person at work and which protects him against one or more risks to his health or safety’ . In the context of transmission and distribution engineering, these PPE will re...

Testing of insulator sets concerns the electric characteristics. Requirements on the performance under power frequency voltage as well as lightning and switching surge voltages are verified using testing. The design of the insulation has to guarantee that the required data corresponding to the selected insulation levels. Insulation levels on the other hand are taken from the Insulation Coordination study done on the transmission line system. Testing of insulators might be done to verify these characteristics. But these are not mandatory, as per IEC 60 383-2. During testing, insulators must be clean and dry. They should be stored on test laboratory ambient temperature for sufficiently long period so that temperature equalizing is reached before conducting the test. This is done to prevent condensation on the insulator surfaces. Below are some of tests conducted on insulator sets, used in transmission lines. Power Frequency Voltage Test Power frequency voltage tes...

ENERGY SAVING AIR CONDITIONING TIP Air conditioning does more than cool the air. It truly "conditions" it by removing dust and dirt as the air is drawn through a filter. Air conditioning also lowers the humidity, making the air more comfortable at any temperature. These benefits, however, can be costly. Depending on your region of the country, air conditioning can account for anywhere from 5 to 50% of your household budget. Because an air conditioner is such a sizable investment, you can save money and energy by carefully purchasing and operating your air conditioner. Continue reading... AIR CONDITIONING ADVICE - Energy Saving Tips Following basic energy saving tips for your air conditioning system is important since it is one of the largest power consuming devices in your home. In fact, it can cost you up to half of your electric bill! Ensuring your air conditioner is running at peak efficiency is key. Here are some really basic energy saving tips and simple maintenance ...

If a conductor is sagged with a given tensile force between two points (A and B) representing the attachments of the conductor at the supports, a curve, the sagging curve or catenary will be formed due to the balance between conductor dead loads and tensile forces. The vertical distance of the conductor to the line connecting both attachment points A and B is called the conductor sag. The calculation of sag and tension of transmission lines can be quite useful to the engineer. The calculations are used to select the appropriate size support strand for a given application or to determine if clearance requirements are met. With today’s clearance requirements the only way to assure clearance requirements are met is by calculation. The calculations serve as an aid to the designers who determine the mechanical stress that the cable must be capable of withstanding or to evaluate such problems as expansion loop cracks and center conductor pullouts. The following are links to d...

Line arresters are not specifically addressed in C62.11-1999, although the arresters used in these applications are part of the standard. Most of the test requirements that apply to line arresters are based on station requirements or distribution class requirements. When specifying line arresters, it should be noted that the following points are inherent to C62.11-1999. 1. Lightning energy handling capability can be a major factor in selecting line arresters depending on their application. The requirement of lightning related energy is typically much more significant for lines than stations. Although present standards do contain some lightning-related tests, there is not presently an accepted test to quantify the lightning energy handling capability of surge arresters. Published energy handling capability of arresters is typically based on switching-related tests. 2. Heavy-duty distribution arresters may be subjected to more severe lightning-related tests than station class...

 Lightning flashovers are segregated into three main types, for stroke locations on a phase conductor, on an overhead shield wire, or to nearby ground. SHIELDING FAILURE FLASHOVERS Shielding failure flashovers events result from a lightning stroke terminating directly on a phase conductor. For shielded lines, these events should be very infrequent and of very low stroke current magnitude. For unshielded lines (i.e., “static less” lines), these events will be much more common and will involve the full distribution of lightning stroke current magnitudes. Arresters can be used to address shielding failure flashovers by applying the arresters on the exposed phases. The arresters must be installed at every tower or pole to be effective at preventing shielding failure flashovers. For unshielded line applications, arrester energy requirements must be adequately addressed since the stroke currents and durations they will be exposed to are harsher than in shielded line ap...

Cast resin transformers. You've probably heard it, but not seen it. Or you might seen it but you don't know what it is called. Resin casting is a method of plastic casting where a mold is filled with a liquid synthetic resin, which then hardens. Whatever is the case, we are here to help you know more about cast resin transformers. Cast Resin Transformer Imefy cast resin transformers are produced according to the highest specifications environmental, climatic and fire of the international standards CENELEC HD 464 and IEC 726. These transformers are called C2 , E2, F1 and their thermal class is F (155°). The tests for the qualifications of these specifications were carried out at the CESI laboratories in Italy. The main characteristics of the specifications are: Read more... Why Cast Resin Transformers? The High-Security, Low-Cost Solution • Reduced Costs: Low fire risk permits location near the load – shortens expensive LV feeders – reduces volt-dro...

Power transformers are naturally big, both in importance and appearance. They are the focal point of a power system. This is a collection of large and massive power transformers. World's Largest Cast Resin Power Transformer Siemens Builds the World’s Largest Cast-Resin Transformer. With its Geafol cast-resin transformers, Siemens Power Transmission and Distribution (PTD) is increasingly developing into a specialist for high power ratings in the medium voltage range. By the end of September 2007, the world’s largest cast-resin transformer with a rated power capacity of 40 MVA left the factory in Kirchheim/Teck, Germany. Read more... World's Largest Amorphous Metal - Based Transformer 12 MVA Oil-Filled Amorphous Metal Distribution Transformer Produced by Korea’s Cheryong using Metglas-Based Wound Cores Manufactured by Woojin. Read more... World’s Largest Electric Arc Furnace Transformer Manufactured By Alstom Grid Turkey The new transformer is to be used in the i...

Power Transformer is one of the most important parts in the power system. It is relatively the most expensive power equipment there is. Specifying a power transformer entails lot of research, hard-work, and knowledge. This blog post is a collection of readily available power transformer specifications around. In reality though, you need to come up with a specification that would best suit your needs. These specifications therefore should only be used as guides or reference as you specify your own power transformers. Power Transformers Specifications 1 We manufacture power transformer strictly as per ISS standards. These power transformers are available up to 5000 KVA in 11, 22 and 33 KV class. These are available under the following specifications which can however be customized as per the requirements of our clients. Read more... POWER TRANSFORMERS Specifications 2 PTI Power Transformers are designed and manufactured to meet specific customer requirements ...

The International Electrotechnical Commission is the leading global organization that publishes consensus-based International Standards and manages conformity assessment systems for electric and electronic products, systems and services, collectively known as electrotechnology. IEC publications serve as a basis for national standardization and as references when drafting international tenders and contracts. The International Electrotechnical Commission serves world markets and society through its standardization and conformity assessment work for all electrical, electronic and related technologies – collectively known as "electrotechnology". The IEC promotes world trade and economic growth and encourages the development of products, systems and services that are safe, efficient and environmentally friendly. You may download their Standards and Publications on links below: IEC Website IEC Resources Page Standards Page

GFCI or ground fault current interrupters measure the current flowing into the outlet through black or hot wires. If the GFCI deteds any difference greater than 7 milliamps, it shuts off the current. Any difference in the current is an indication that the currents is somehow shorting or leaking. These are dangerous situations, and a GFCI will shut down faster than a standard circuit breaker or fuse. NESC and NEC required the intallation of GFCIs in the United States. According to a statistic in the US, if a GFCI is installed in every home, 2/3 of residential electrocution could have been prevented. Recommended areas to put in GFCI re the following: Bathrooms Kitchen counters Outdoors Garage walls Unfinished basements and crawl spaces Water and water pipes are common on these places, and water and water pipes are good at attracting current away from its path, to your body. Other information related to GFCI could be found on these carefully sele...

Circuit breakers and fuses perform the same task. They interrupt electrical power when the current demand is too high. In cases such as a high unwanted current is present, and the breaker doesn't trip or the fuses won't burn out, the wire connecting could overheat and possibly start a fire. Fuses. Although there is a variety of fuses, most old residential system use the glass, screw in type called plug fuses. These fuses feature a narrow metal strip, visible through the glass, that quickly melts when too much current is starting to move through the circuits. Fuses are rated by amperage and cannot be reused after they burn or blow. A fuse is generally safe if it is used according to its design. In other words. -Always use the correct size fuse -Be sure that the fuse is screwed in tightly -Don't replace a fuse with anything else that a fuse Breakers. Breakers trip, while fuses burn. They trip when their metallic strip heats up, bends, and fo...

Reading color coded resistors is easy, if you know how. When you say reading, you really mean knowing the value of a resistor, before you put it in a circuit. Reading color coded resistor's value is a basic knowledge or skill that one should have if they are into electronics and electricity. It is one of the foundation skills needed. How to read resistor color code VIDEO How To Read Resistor Color Codes - TRANSMISSION LINES DESIGN HUB In school, we were taught this code: Bad Boy Rape Young Girls But Violeta Gave Silver Gold  That code is used to know the value of the colors. To fully understand and a tutorial on how to read the value of a resistor through its color codes, we've selected the best sites around. Browse and enjoy. How to read Resistor Color Codes Resistors are color coded for easy reading. Imagine how many blind technicians there would be otherwise. To determine the value of a given resistor look for the gold or silv...